Technical maturity and bubble risks of brain–computer interface (BCI): Considerations from research to industrial translation_Journal of Biomedical Engineering

Authors：

 FU Yunfa ^1,2 , LU Haichen ^1,2

1. Faculty of Information Engineering and Automation, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, P. R. China;
2. Brain Cognition and Brain-computer Intelligence Integration Group, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

FU Yunfa, Email: fyf@ynu.edu.cn

Keywords：

Brain–computer interface; Technology Readiness Level; Bubble risk; Translational gap; Governance strategies

DOI：

10.7507/1001-5515.202507053

Video：

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Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology faces structural risks due to a misalignment between its technological maturity and industrialization expectations. This study used the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) framework to assess the status of major BCI paradigms—such as steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP), motor imagery, and P300—and found that they predominantly remained at TRL4 to TRL6, with few stable applications reaching TRL9. The analysis identified four interrelated sources of bubble risk: overly broad definitions of BCI, excessive focus on decoding performance, asynchronous translational progress, and imprecise terminology usage. These distortions have contributed to the misallocation of research resources and public misunderstanding. To foster the sustainable development of BCI, this paper advocated the establishment of a standardized TRL evaluation system, clearer terminological boundaries, stronger support for fundamental research, enhanced ethical oversight, and the implementation of inclusive and diversified governance mechanisms.

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2.	伏云发, 郭衍龙, 张夏冰, 等.脑-机接口—革命性的人机交互. 北京: 国防工业出版社, 2020.
3.	伏云发, 龚安民, 南文雅. 神经反馈原理与实践. 北京: 电子工业出版社, 2021: 33-34.
4.	伏云发, 龚安民, 陈超, 等. 面向实用的脑-机接口: 缩小研究与实际应用之间的差距. 北京: 电子工业出版社, 2022: 45-47.
5.	伏云发, 王帆, 丁鹏, 等. 脑-计算机接口. 北京: 国防工业出版社, 2023: 631-646.
6.	Wolpaw J R, Birbaumer N, Heetderks W J, et al. Brain-computer interface technology: a review of the first international meeting. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng, 2000, 8(2): 164-173.
7.	Wolpaw J R. Brain–computer interfaces as new brain output pathways. J Physiol, 2007, 579(3): 613-619.
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9.	Chen Y, Wang F, Li T, et al. Considerations and discussions on the clear definition and definite scope of brain-computer interfaces. Front Neurosci, 2024, 18: 1449208.
10.	罗建功, 丁鹏, 龚安民, 等. 脑机接口技术的应用、产业转化和商业价值. 生物医学工程学杂志, 2022, 39(02): 405-415.
11.	Lombardi I, Buono M, Giugliano G, et al. Usability and acceptance analysis of wearable BCI devices. Appl Sci, 2025, 15(7): 3512.
12.	Jangwan N S, Ashraf G M, Ram V, et al. Brain augmentation and neuroscience technologies: current applications, challenges, ethics and future prospects. Front Syst Neurosci, 2022, 16: 1000495.
13.	Orovas C, Sapounidis T, Volioti C, et al. Eeg in education: A scoping review of hardware, software, and methodological aspects. Sensors (Basel), 2024, 25(1): 182.
14.	Mankins J C. Technology readiness levels. Washington DC: NASA Office of Space Access and Technology, 1995.
15.	Rodríguez López N, Alvarez Cabal J V, Cuiñas M C, et al. Applicability of technology maturity level evaluation methodologies within small-and medium-sized organizations: Prospects and proposals. Systems, 2023, 11(8): 387.
16.	Fu Y, Chen X, Hu Y. Correct understanding of brain–computer interfaces. J Neurorestoratology, 2024, 12(3): 100139.
17.	Liu X, Zhang W, Li W, et al. Effects of motor imagery based brain-computer interface on upper limb function and attention in stroke patients with hemiplegia: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Neurol, 2023, 23(1): 136.
18.	Liao W, Li J, Zhang X, et al. Motor imagery brain–computer interface rehabilitation system enhances upper limb performance and improves brain activity in stroke patients: A clinical study. Front Hum Neurosci, 2023, 17: 1117670.
19.	伏云发, 杨帮华, 陈树耿, 等. 基于想象的脑机交互原理与实践. 北京: 电子工业出版社, 2025.
20.	Saibene A, Caglioni M, Corchs S, et al. EEG-based BCIs on motor imagery paradigm using wearable technologies: a systematic review. Sensors, 2023, 23(5): 2798.
21.	Cheng Y, Yan L, Shoukat M U, et al. An improved SSVEP-based brain-computer interface with low-contrast visual stimulation and its application in UAV control. J Neurophysiol, 2024, 132(3): 809-821.
22.	Angrick M, Luo S, Rabbani Q, et al. Online speech synthesis using a chronically implanted brain–computer interface in an individual with ALS. Sci Rep, 2024, 14(1): 9617.
23.	Mitchell P, Lee S C M, Yoo P E, et al. Assessment of safety of a fully implanted endovascular brain-computer interface for severe paralysis in 4 patients: the stentrode with thought-controlled digital switch (SWITCH) study. JAMA Neurol, 2023, 80(3): 270-278.
24.	Valeriani D, Cecotti H, Thelen A, et al. Translational brain-computer interfaces: From research labs to the market and back. Front Hum Neurosci, 2023, 17: 1152466.
25.	Floridi L. Why the AI hype is another tech bubble. Philos Technol, 2024, 37(4): 128.
26.	Liu M, Fang M, Liu M, et al. Knowledge mapping and research trends of brain-computer interface technology in rehabilitation: a bibliometric analysis. Front Hum Neurosci, 2024, 18: 1486167.
27.	Gordon E C, Seth A K. Ethical considerations for the use of brain–computer interfaces for cognitive enhancement. PLoS Biol, 2024, 22(10): e3002899.
28.	Maiseli B, Abdalla A T, Massawe L V, et al. Brain–computer interface: trend, challenges, and threats. Brain Inform, 2023, 10(1): 20.
29.	Livanis E, Voultsos P, Vadikolias K, et al. Understanding the ethical issues of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs): a blessing or the beginning of a dystopian future?. Cureus, 2024, 16(4): e58243.
30.	Fu Y, Xue Y, Chen X, et al. Brain-computer interface (BCI) in clinical neurorestorative practices. J Neurorestoratology, 2025, 13(2): 100188.
31.	Zhang Z, Chen Y, Zhao X, et al. A review of ethical considerations for the medical applications of brain-computer interfaces. Cogn Neurodyn, 2024, 18(6): 3603-3614.
32.	Khan A Y Y, Anjum A, Qadri H M. Ethical tightrope: Navigating neuro-ethics in brain computer interface (BCI) technology. Brain Spine, 2024, 4: 102800.
33.	Loriette C, Amengual J L, Ben Hamed S. Beyond the brain-computer interface: Decoding brain activity as a tool to understand neuronal mechanisms subtending cognition and behavior. Front Neurosci, 2022, 16: 811736.
34.	Värbu K, Muhammad N, Muhammad Y. Past, present, and future of EEG-based BCI applications. Sensors, 2022, 22(9): 3331.
35.	张喆, 陈衍肖, 赵旭, 等. 植入式脑机接口医学应用伦理规范考量. 生物医学工程学杂志, 2024, 41(1): 177-183.
36.	Yadav H, Maini S. Electroencephalogram based brain-computer interface: Applications, challenges, and opportunities. Multimed Tools Appl, 2023, 82(30): 47003-47047.
37.	Tsai P C, Akpan A, Tang K T, et al. Brain computer interfaces for cognitive enhancement in older people-challenges and applications: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr, 2025, 25(1): 36.
38.	Hossain K M, Islam M A, Hossain S, et al. Status of deep learning for EEG-based brain–computer interface applications. Front Comput Neurosci, 2023, 16: 1006763.
39.	Xia R T, Yang S. Factors influencing the social acceptance of brain-computer interface technology among Chinese general public: an exploratory study. Front Hum Neurosci, 2024, 18: 1423382.
40.	Istace T. Neurorights: the debate about new legal safeguards to protect the mind. Issues Law Med, 2022, 37(1): 95-114.
41.	Cornejo-Plaza M I, Cippitani R, Pasquino V. Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata. Front Psychol, 2024, 15: 1330439.
42.	Ienca M, Fins J J, Jox R J, et al. Towards a governance framework for brain data. Neuroethics, 2022, 15(2): 20.
43.	Garbe T. The presentation of brain-computer interfaces as autonomy-enhancing therapy products: A mechanism to promote societal acceptance of implant technologies. NanoEthics, 2024, 18(3): 13.

1. 伏云发, 杨秋红, 徐保磊, 等. 脑-机接口原理与实践. 北京: 国防工业出版社, 2017: 5-6.
2. 伏云发, 郭衍龙, 张夏冰, 等.脑-机接口—革命性的人机交互. 北京: 国防工业出版社, 2020.
3. 伏云发, 龚安民, 南文雅. 神经反馈原理与实践. 北京: 电子工业出版社, 2021: 33-34.
4. 伏云发, 龚安民, 陈超, 等. 面向实用的脑-机接口: 缩小研究与实际应用之间的差距. 北京: 电子工业出版社, 2022: 45-47.
5. 伏云发, 王帆, 丁鹏, 等. 脑-计算机接口. 北京: 国防工业出版社, 2023: 631-646.
6. Wolpaw J R, Birbaumer N, Heetderks W J, et al. Brain-computer interface technology: a review of the first international meeting. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng, 2000, 8(2): 164-173.
7. Wolpaw J R. Brain–computer interfaces as new brain output pathways. J Physiol, 2007, 579(3): 613-619.
8. Wolpaw J R, Wolpaw E W. Brain-computer interfaces: something new under the sun// Wolpaw J, Wolpaw E W. Brain-computer interfaces: principles and practice. Online: Oxford Academic, 2012: 3-12.
9. Chen Y, Wang F, Li T, et al. Considerations and discussions on the clear definition and definite scope of brain-computer interfaces. Front Neurosci, 2024, 18: 1449208.
10. 罗建功, 丁鹏, 龚安民, 等. 脑机接口技术的应用、产业转化和商业价值. 生物医学工程学杂志, 2022, 39(02): 405-415.
11. Lombardi I, Buono M, Giugliano G, et al. Usability and acceptance analysis of wearable BCI devices. Appl Sci, 2025, 15(7): 3512.
12. Jangwan N S, Ashraf G M, Ram V, et al. Brain augmentation and neuroscience technologies: current applications, challenges, ethics and future prospects. Front Syst Neurosci, 2022, 16: 1000495.
13. Orovas C, Sapounidis T, Volioti C, et al. Eeg in education: A scoping review of hardware, software, and methodological aspects. Sensors (Basel), 2024, 25(1): 182.
14. Mankins J C. Technology readiness levels. Washington DC: NASA Office of Space Access and Technology, 1995.
15. Rodríguez López N, Alvarez Cabal J V, Cuiñas M C, et al. Applicability of technology maturity level evaluation methodologies within small-and medium-sized organizations: Prospects and proposals. Systems, 2023, 11(8): 387.
16. Fu Y, Chen X, Hu Y. Correct understanding of brain–computer interfaces. J Neurorestoratology, 2024, 12(3): 100139.
17. Liu X, Zhang W, Li W, et al. Effects of motor imagery based brain-computer interface on upper limb function and attention in stroke patients with hemiplegia: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Neurol, 2023, 23(1): 136.
18. Liao W, Li J, Zhang X, et al. Motor imagery brain–computer interface rehabilitation system enhances upper limb performance and improves brain activity in stroke patients: A clinical study. Front Hum Neurosci, 2023, 17: 1117670.
19. 伏云发, 杨帮华, 陈树耿, 等. 基于想象的脑机交互原理与实践. 北京: 电子工业出版社, 2025.
20. Saibene A, Caglioni M, Corchs S, et al. EEG-based BCIs on motor imagery paradigm using wearable technologies: a systematic review. Sensors, 2023, 23(5): 2798.
21. Cheng Y, Yan L, Shoukat M U, et al. An improved SSVEP-based brain-computer interface with low-contrast visual stimulation and its application in UAV control. J Neurophysiol, 2024, 132(3): 809-821.
22. Angrick M, Luo S, Rabbani Q, et al. Online speech synthesis using a chronically implanted brain–computer interface in an individual with ALS. Sci Rep, 2024, 14(1): 9617.
23. Mitchell P, Lee S C M, Yoo P E, et al. Assessment of safety of a fully implanted endovascular brain-computer interface for severe paralysis in 4 patients: the stentrode with thought-controlled digital switch (SWITCH) study. JAMA Neurol, 2023, 80(3): 270-278.
24. Valeriani D, Cecotti H, Thelen A, et al. Translational brain-computer interfaces: From research labs to the market and back. Front Hum Neurosci, 2023, 17: 1152466.
25. Floridi L. Why the AI hype is another tech bubble. Philos Technol, 2024, 37(4): 128.
26. Liu M, Fang M, Liu M, et al. Knowledge mapping and research trends of brain-computer interface technology in rehabilitation: a bibliometric analysis. Front Hum Neurosci, 2024, 18: 1486167.
27. Gordon E C, Seth A K. Ethical considerations for the use of brain–computer interfaces for cognitive enhancement. PLoS Biol, 2024, 22(10): e3002899.
28. Maiseli B, Abdalla A T, Massawe L V, et al. Brain–computer interface: trend, challenges, and threats. Brain Inform, 2023, 10(1): 20.
29. Livanis E, Voultsos P, Vadikolias K, et al. Understanding the ethical issues of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs): a blessing or the beginning of a dystopian future?. Cureus, 2024, 16(4): e58243.
30. Fu Y, Xue Y, Chen X, et al. Brain-computer interface (BCI) in clinical neurorestorative practices. J Neurorestoratology, 2025, 13(2): 100188.
31. Zhang Z, Chen Y, Zhao X, et al. A review of ethical considerations for the medical applications of brain-computer interfaces. Cogn Neurodyn, 2024, 18(6): 3603-3614.
32. Khan A Y Y, Anjum A, Qadri H M. Ethical tightrope: Navigating neuro-ethics in brain computer interface (BCI) technology. Brain Spine, 2024, 4: 102800.
33. Loriette C, Amengual J L, Ben Hamed S. Beyond the brain-computer interface: Decoding brain activity as a tool to understand neuronal mechanisms subtending cognition and behavior. Front Neurosci, 2022, 16: 811736.
34. Värbu K, Muhammad N, Muhammad Y. Past, present, and future of EEG-based BCI applications. Sensors, 2022, 22(9): 3331.
35. 张喆, 陈衍肖, 赵旭, 等. 植入式脑机接口医学应用伦理规范考量. 生物医学工程学杂志, 2024, 41(1): 177-183.
36. Yadav H, Maini S. Electroencephalogram based brain-computer interface: Applications, challenges, and opportunities. Multimed Tools Appl, 2023, 82(30): 47003-47047.
37. Tsai P C, Akpan A, Tang K T, et al. Brain computer interfaces for cognitive enhancement in older people-challenges and applications: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr, 2025, 25(1): 36.
38. Hossain K M, Islam M A, Hossain S, et al. Status of deep learning for EEG-based brain–computer interface applications. Front Comput Neurosci, 2023, 16: 1006763.
39. Xia R T, Yang S. Factors influencing the social acceptance of brain-computer interface technology among Chinese general public: an exploratory study. Front Hum Neurosci, 2024, 18: 1423382.
40. Istace T. Neurorights: the debate about new legal safeguards to protect the mind. Issues Law Med, 2022, 37(1): 95-114.
41. Cornejo-Plaza M I, Cippitani R, Pasquino V. Chilean Supreme Court ruling on the protection of brain activity: neurorights, personal data protection, and neurodata. Front Psychol, 2024, 15: 1330439.
42. Ienca M, Fins J J, Jox R J, et al. Towards a governance framework for brain data. Neuroethics, 2022, 15(2): 20.
43. Garbe T. The presentation of brain-computer interfaces as autonomy-enhancing therapy products: A mechanism to promote societal acceptance of implant technologies. NanoEthics, 2024, 18(3): 13.

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