Risk and prevention strategies for donor-derived infections in liver transplantation_CHINESE JOURNAL OF BASES AND CLINICS IN GENERAL SURGERY

Authors：

YANG Jia ^1,2 , KONG Lingxiang ^1,2 , XU Xi ^1,2 , XU Gang ^1,2 , YUAN Jingsheng ^1,2 , LÜ Tao ^1,2 , YANG Jian ^1,2 ,  YANG Jiayin ^1,2

1. Liver Transplant Center, Organ Transplant Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China;
2. Department of General Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

YANG Jiayin, Email: doctoryjy@scu.edu.cn

Keywords：

liver transplantation; donor-derived infection; organ preservation solution

DOI：

10.7507/1007-9424.202501064

Video：

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Liver transplantation plays a pivotal role in the field of treating end-stage liver diseases. It is currently the only treatment method that can effectively save patients’ lives and has been fully verified as effective in clinical practice. However, the problem of postoperative infection has become one of the key factors impeding the favorable prognosis of patients. Among them, donor-derived infections, due to their uniqueness and complexity, are gradually becoming a research hotspot in both clinical and scientific research fields. Through a systematic and comprehensive analysis of a large number of existing studies, we deeply analyzed the overall current situation of infections after liver transplantation, clarified the specific types of donor-derived infections and their respective characteristics. On this basis, the potential risks of such infections were thoroughly explored, and preventive strategies such as the prophylactic use of antibiotics and vaccination were put forward in a targeted manner, aiming to improve the prognosis of patients after liver transplantation to the greatest extent and enhance the quality of life of patients.

1.	Feng S, Roll GR, Rouhani FJ, et al. The future of liver transplantation. Hepatology, 2024, 80(3): 674-697.
2.	Weiss N, Thabut D. Neurological complications occurring after liver transplantation: role of risk factors, hepatic encephalopathy, and acute (on chronic) brain injury. Liver Transpl, 2019, 25(3): 469-487.
3.	郑树森, 俞军, 张武. 肝移植在中国的发展现状. 临床肝胆病杂志, 2014, 30(1): 2-4.
4.	Fishman JA. Infection in organ transplantation. Am J Transplant, 2017, 17(4): 856-879.
5.	Phadke VK. Clinical approach to donor-derived infection in solid organ transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis, 2024, 26 Suppl 1: e14344. doi: 10.1111/tid.14344.
6.	Martin-Gandul C, Stampf S, Héquet D, et al. Preventive strategies against cytomegalovirus and incidence of α-herpesvirus infections in solid organ transplant recipients: A nationwide cohort study. Am J Transplant, 2017, 17(7): 1813-1822.
7.	Righi E. Management of bacterial and fungal infections in end stage liver disease and liver transplantation: Current options and future directions. World J Gastroenterol, 2018, 24(38): 4311-4329.
8.	崔红磊, 张水军. 肝移植术后细菌感染的现状分析与防治策略. 实用器官移植电子杂志, 2019, 7(6): 446-448.
9.	Greendyke WG, Pereira MR. Infectious complications and vaccinations in the posttransplant population. Med Clin North Am, 2016, 100(3): 587-598.
10.	Pedersen M, Seetharam A. Infections after orthotopic liver transplantation. J Clin Exp Hepatol, 2014, 4(4): 347-360.
11.	Hand J, Patel G. Multidrug-resistant organisms in liver transplant: Mitigating risk and managing infections. Liver Transpl, 2016, 22(8): 1143-1153.
12.	Almohaya A, Fersovich J, Weyant RB, et al. The impact of colonization by multidrug resistant bacteria on graft survival, risk of infection, and mortality in recipients of solid organ transplant: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2024, 30(10): 1228-1243.
13.	Pilmis B, Weiss E, Scemla A, et al. Multidrug-resistant Enterobacterales infections in abdominal solid organ transplantation. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2023, 29(1): 38-43.
14.	Kritikos A, Manuel O. Bloodstream infections after solid-organ transplantation. Virulence, 2016, 7(3): 329-340.
15.	Wolfe CR, Ison MG; AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Donor-derived infections: Guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant, 2019, 33(9): e13547. doi: 10.1111/ctr.13547.
16.	Garzoni C, Ison MG. Uniform definitions for donor-derived infectious disease transmissions in solid organ transplantation. Transplantation, 2011, 92(12): 1297-1300.
17.	Bethea ED, Gaj K, Gustafson JL, et al. Pre-emptive pangenotypic direct acting antiviral therapy in donor HCV-positive to recipient HCV-negative heart transplantation: an open-label study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2019, 4(10): 771-780.
18.	Ison MG, Nalesnik MA. An update on donor-derived disease transmission in organ transplantation. Am J Transplant, 2011, 11(6): 1123-1130.
19.	Echenique IA, Ison MG. Update on donor-derived infections in liver transplantation. Liver Transpl, 2013, 19(6): 575-585.
20.	Schito ML, D’Souza MP, Owen SM, et al. Challenges for rapid molecular HIV diagnostics. J Infect Dis, 2010, 201 Suppl 1(Suppl 1): S1-S6. doi: 10.1086/650394.
21.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Chagas disease after organ transplantation—United States, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2002, 51(10): 210-212.
22.	Gould CV, Free RJ, Bhatnagar J, et al. Transmission of yellow fever vaccine virus through blood transfusion and organ transplantation in the USA in 2021: report of an investigation. Lancet Microbe, 2023, 4(9): e711-e721. doi: 10.1016/S2666-5247(23)00170-2.
23.	Free RJ, Levi ME, Bowman JS, et al. Updated U.S. public health service guideline for testing of transplant candidates aged ＜12 years for infection with HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus—United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2022, 71(26): 844-846.
24.	Vera A, Contreras F, Guevara F. Incidence and risk factors for infections after liver transplant: single-center experience at the University Hospital Fundación Santa Fe de Bogotá, Colombia. Transpl Infect Dis, 2011, 13(6): 608-615.
25.	冉江华, 李望, 张升宁, 等. 肝移植术后细菌感染的诊治. 器官移植, 2015, 6(6): 359-361.
26.	Oriol I, Lladó L, Vila M, et al. The etiology, incidence, and impact of preservation fluid contamination during liver transplantation. PLoS One, 2016, 11(8): e0160701. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160701.
27.	Oriol I, Sabé N, Tebé C, et al. Clinical impact of culture-positive preservation fluid on solid organ transplantation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Transplant Rev (Orlando), 2018, 32(2): 85-91.
28.	Janny S, Bert F, Dondero F, et al. Microbiological findings of culture-positive preservation fluid in liver transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis, 2011, 13(1): 9-14.
29.	Levesque E, Paugam-Burtz C, Saliba F, et al. Fungal complications after Candida preservation fluid contamination in liver transplant recipients. Transpl Int, 2015, 28(11): 1308-1316.
30.	Phoompoung P, Herrera S, Pérez Cortés Villalobos A, et al. Risk factors of invasive fungal infections in liver transplant recipients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Transplant, 2022, 22(4): 1213-1229.
31.	Møller DL, Sørensen SS, Perch M, et al. Bacterial and fungal bloodstream infections in solid organ transplant recipients: results from a Danish cohort with nationwide follow-up. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2022, 28(3): 391-397.
32.	Sun HY, Cacciarelli TV, Singh N. Identifying a targeted population at high risk for infections after liver transplantation in the MELD era. Clin Transplant, 2011, 25(3): 420-425.
33.	Wade JJ, Rolando N, Hayllar K, et al. Bacterial and fungal infections after liver transplantation: an analysis of 284 patients. Hepatology, 1995, 21(5): 1328-1336.
34.	Zhao D, Liang GH, Pan JK, et al. Risk factors for postoperative surgical site infections after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med, 2023, 57(2): 118-128.
35.	van Hoek B, de Rooij BJ, Verspaget HW. Risk factors for infection after liver transplantation. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol, 2012, 26(1): 61-72.
36.	Iida T, Kaido T, Yagi S, et al. Posttransplant bacteremia in adult living donor liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl, 2010, 16(12): 1379-1385.
37.	Hoyer DP, Paul A, Gallinat A, et al. Donor information based prediction of early allograft dysfunction and outcome in liver transplantation. Liver Int, 2015, 35(1): 156-163.
38.	孟稳利, 刘志华, 缪洁. 肝移植术后肺部感染相关因素临床分析. 中国现代医学杂志, 2013, 23(22): 104-106.
39.	Steininger R, Roth E, Függer R, et al. Transhepatic metabolism of TNF-alpha, IL-6, and endotoxin in the early hepatic reperfusion period after human liver transplantation. Transplantation, 1994 58(2): 179-183.
40.	Miyata T, Yokoyama I, Todo S, et al. Endotoxaemia, pulmonary complications, and thrombocytopenia in liver transplantation. Lancet, 1989, 2(8656): 189-191.
41.	Anesi JA, Blumberg EA, Abbo LM. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent surgical site infections in solid organ transplantation. Transplantation, 2018, 102(1): 21-34.
42.	Aktas A, Kayaalp C, Gunes O, et al. Surgical site infection and risk factors following right lobe living donor liver transplantation in adults: A single-center prospective cohort study. Transpl Infect Dis, 2019, 21(6): e13176. doi: 10.1111/tid.13176.
43.	He Q, Liu P, Li X, et al. Risk factors of bloodstream infections in recipients after liver transplantation: a meta-analysis. Infection, 2019, 47(1): 77-85.
44.	Selimoğlu MA, Kaya S, Güngör Ş, et al. Infection risk after paediatric liver transplantation. Turk J Pediatr, 2020, 62(1): 46-52.
45.	Bentata Y. Tacrolimus: 20 years of use in adult kidney transplantation. What we should know about its nephrotoxicity. Artif Organs, 2020, 44(2): 140-152.
46.	Humar A, Morris M, Blumberg E, et al. Nucleic acid testing (NAT) of organ donors: is the ‘best’ test the right test? A consensus conference report. Am J Transplant, 2010, 10(4): 889-899.
47.	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV transmitted from a living organ donor—New York City, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2011, 60(10): 297-301.
48.	Han D, Li Z, Li R, et al. mNGS in clinical microbiology laboratories: on the road to maturity. Crit Rev Microbiol, 2019, 45(5-6): 668-685.
49.	Miao Q, Ma Y, Wang Q, et al. Microbiological diagnostic performance of metagenomic next-generation sequencing when applied to clinical practice. Clin Infect Dis, 2018, 67(suppl_2): S231-S240. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciy693.
50.	Chiu CY, Miller SA. Clinical metagenomics. Nat Rev Genet, 2019, 20(6): 341-355.
51.	刘璀, 张春红, 陈凡, 等. 美国外科围术期预防用药临床指南—肝移植部分. 实用器官移植电子杂志, 2017, 5(1): 2-6.
52.	Cruciani M, Mengoli C, Malena M, et al. Antifungal prophylaxis in liver transplant patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Liver Transpl, 2006, 12(5): 850-858.
53.	Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis, 2014, 58(3): 309-318.
54.	Danziger-Isakov L, Kumar D; AST ID Community of Practice. Vaccination of solid organ transplant candidates and recipients: Guidelines from the American society of transplantation infectious diseases community of practice. Clin Transplant, 2019, 33(9): e13563. doi: 10.1111/ctr.13563.
55.	Stucchi RSB, Lopes MH, Kumar D, et al. Vaccine recommendations for solid-organ transplant recipients and donors. Transplantation, 2018, 102(2S Suppl 2): S72-S80. doi: 10.1097/tp.0000000000002012.
56.	Duchini A, Hendry RM, Nyberg LM, et al. Immune response to influenza vaccine in adult liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl, 2001, 7(4): 311-313.
57.	Vilchez RA, Fung JJ, Kusne S. Influenza A myocarditis developing in an adult liver transplant recipient despite vaccination: a case report and review of the literature. Transplantation, 2000, 70(3): 543-545.
58.	Kumar D, Humar A, Plevneshi A, et al. Invasive pneumococcal disease in solid organ transplant recipients—10-year prospective population surveillance. Am J Transplant, 2007, 7(5): 1209-1214.
59.	中华预防医学会, 中华预防医学会疫苗与免疫分会. 肺炎球菌性疾病免疫预防专家共识(2020版). 中国疫苗和免疫, 2021, 27(1): 1-47.
60.	Vento S, Garofano T, Renzini C, et al. Fulminant hepatitis associated with hepatitis A virus superinfection in patients with chronic hepatitis C. N Engl J Med, 1998, 338(5): 286-290.
61.	Chen Z, Ma Y, Dong Y, et al. Utilization of hepatitis B surface antigen-positive donors in liver transplantation for recipients with hepatocellular carcinoma: a retrospective and propensity score matching analysis. PeerJ, 2023, 11: e15620. doi: 10.7717/peerj.15620.
62.	Yong CC, Lin YH, Espinosa WZ, et al. Long-term outcomes of active vaccination against de novo hepatitis B among pediatric recipients of living donor liver transplantations with anti-HBc (+) grafts: a retrospective case-control study. Int J Surg, 2024, 110(10): 6702-6710.
63.	Park JS, Gayam V, Pan CQ. Review article: preventing hepatitis B graft infection in hepatitis B patients after liver transplantation: immunoglobulin vs anti-virals. Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 2020, 52(6): 944-954.
64.	Roque-Afonso AM, Feray C, Samuel D, et al. Antibodies to hepatitis B surface antigen prevent viral reactivation in recipients of liver grafts from anti-HBC positive donors. Gut, 2002, 50(1): 95-99.
65.	Lin CC, Yong CC, Chen CL. Active vaccination to prevent de novo hepatitis B virus infection in liver transplantation. World J Gastroenterol, 2015, 21(39): 11112-11117.
66.	Brewer EC, Hunter L. Acute liver failure due to disseminated varicella zosterinfection. Case Reports Hepatol, 2018, 2018: 1269340. doi: 10.1155/2018/1269340.

1. Feng S, Roll GR, Rouhani FJ, et al. The future of liver transplantation. Hepatology, 2024, 80(3): 674-697.
2. Weiss N, Thabut D. Neurological complications occurring after liver transplantation: role of risk factors, hepatic encephalopathy, and acute (on chronic) brain injury. Liver Transpl, 2019, 25(3): 469-487.
3. 郑树森, 俞军, 张武. 肝移植在中国的发展现状. 临床肝胆病杂志, 2014, 30(1): 2-4.
4. Fishman JA. Infection in organ transplantation. Am J Transplant, 2017, 17(4): 856-879.
5. Phadke VK. Clinical approach to donor-derived infection in solid organ transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis, 2024, 26 Suppl 1: e14344. doi: 10.1111/tid.14344.
6. Martin-Gandul C, Stampf S, Héquet D, et al. Preventive strategies against cytomegalovirus and incidence of α-herpesvirus infections in solid organ transplant recipients: A nationwide cohort study. Am J Transplant, 2017, 17(7): 1813-1822.
7. Righi E. Management of bacterial and fungal infections in end stage liver disease and liver transplantation: Current options and future directions. World J Gastroenterol, 2018, 24(38): 4311-4329.
8. 崔红磊, 张水军. 肝移植术后细菌感染的现状分析与防治策略. 实用器官移植电子杂志, 2019, 7(6): 446-448.
9. Greendyke WG, Pereira MR. Infectious complications and vaccinations in the posttransplant population. Med Clin North Am, 2016, 100(3): 587-598.
10. Pedersen M, Seetharam A. Infections after orthotopic liver transplantation. J Clin Exp Hepatol, 2014, 4(4): 347-360.
11. Hand J, Patel G. Multidrug-resistant organisms in liver transplant: Mitigating risk and managing infections. Liver Transpl, 2016, 22(8): 1143-1153.
12. Almohaya A, Fersovich J, Weyant RB, et al. The impact of colonization by multidrug resistant bacteria on graft survival, risk of infection, and mortality in recipients of solid organ transplant: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2024, 30(10): 1228-1243.
13. Pilmis B, Weiss E, Scemla A, et al. Multidrug-resistant Enterobacterales infections in abdominal solid organ transplantation. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2023, 29(1): 38-43.
14. Kritikos A, Manuel O. Bloodstream infections after solid-organ transplantation. Virulence, 2016, 7(3): 329-340.
15. Wolfe CR, Ison MG; AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Donor-derived infections: Guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant, 2019, 33(9): e13547. doi: 10.1111/ctr.13547.
16. Garzoni C, Ison MG. Uniform definitions for donor-derived infectious disease transmissions in solid organ transplantation. Transplantation, 2011, 92(12): 1297-1300.
17. Bethea ED, Gaj K, Gustafson JL, et al. Pre-emptive pangenotypic direct acting antiviral therapy in donor HCV-positive to recipient HCV-negative heart transplantation: an open-label study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2019, 4(10): 771-780.
18. Ison MG, Nalesnik MA. An update on donor-derived disease transmission in organ transplantation. Am J Transplant, 2011, 11(6): 1123-1130.
19. Echenique IA, Ison MG. Update on donor-derived infections in liver transplantation. Liver Transpl, 2013, 19(6): 575-585.
20. Schito ML, D’Souza MP, Owen SM, et al. Challenges for rapid molecular HIV diagnostics. J Infect Dis, 2010, 201 Suppl 1(Suppl 1): S1-S6. doi: 10.1086/650394.
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Chagas disease after organ transplantation—United States, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2002, 51(10): 210-212.
22. Gould CV, Free RJ, Bhatnagar J, et al. Transmission of yellow fever vaccine virus through blood transfusion and organ transplantation in the USA in 2021: report of an investigation. Lancet Microbe, 2023, 4(9): e711-e721. doi: 10.1016/S2666-5247(23)00170-2.
23. Free RJ, Levi ME, Bowman JS, et al. Updated U.S. public health service guideline for testing of transplant candidates aged ＜12 years for infection with HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus—United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2022, 71(26): 844-846.
24. Vera A, Contreras F, Guevara F. Incidence and risk factors for infections after liver transplant: single-center experience at the University Hospital Fundación Santa Fe de Bogotá, Colombia. Transpl Infect Dis, 2011, 13(6): 608-615.
25. 冉江华, 李望, 张升宁, 等. 肝移植术后细菌感染的诊治. 器官移植, 2015, 6(6): 359-361.
26. Oriol I, Lladó L, Vila M, et al. The etiology, incidence, and impact of preservation fluid contamination during liver transplantation. PLoS One, 2016, 11(8): e0160701. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160701.
27. Oriol I, Sabé N, Tebé C, et al. Clinical impact of culture-positive preservation fluid on solid organ transplantation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Transplant Rev (Orlando), 2018, 32(2): 85-91.
28. Janny S, Bert F, Dondero F, et al. Microbiological findings of culture-positive preservation fluid in liver transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis, 2011, 13(1): 9-14.
29. Levesque E, Paugam-Burtz C, Saliba F, et al. Fungal complications after Candida preservation fluid contamination in liver transplant recipients. Transpl Int, 2015, 28(11): 1308-1316.
30. Phoompoung P, Herrera S, Pérez Cortés Villalobos A, et al. Risk factors of invasive fungal infections in liver transplant recipients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Transplant, 2022, 22(4): 1213-1229.
31. Møller DL, Sørensen SS, Perch M, et al. Bacterial and fungal bloodstream infections in solid organ transplant recipients: results from a Danish cohort with nationwide follow-up. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2022, 28(3): 391-397.
32. Sun HY, Cacciarelli TV, Singh N. Identifying a targeted population at high risk for infections after liver transplantation in the MELD era. Clin Transplant, 2011, 25(3): 420-425.
33. Wade JJ, Rolando N, Hayllar K, et al. Bacterial and fungal infections after liver transplantation: an analysis of 284 patients. Hepatology, 1995, 21(5): 1328-1336.
34. Zhao D, Liang GH, Pan JK, et al. Risk factors for postoperative surgical site infections after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med, 2023, 57(2): 118-128.
35. van Hoek B, de Rooij BJ, Verspaget HW. Risk factors for infection after liver transplantation. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol, 2012, 26(1): 61-72.
36. Iida T, Kaido T, Yagi S, et al. Posttransplant bacteremia in adult living donor liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl, 2010, 16(12): 1379-1385.
37. Hoyer DP, Paul A, Gallinat A, et al. Donor information based prediction of early allograft dysfunction and outcome in liver transplantation. Liver Int, 2015, 35(1): 156-163.
38. 孟稳利, 刘志华, 缪洁. 肝移植术后肺部感染相关因素临床分析. 中国现代医学杂志, 2013, 23(22): 104-106.
39. Steininger R, Roth E, Függer R, et al. Transhepatic metabolism of TNF-alpha, IL-6, and endotoxin in the early hepatic reperfusion period after human liver transplantation. Transplantation, 1994 58(2): 179-183.
40. Miyata T, Yokoyama I, Todo S, et al. Endotoxaemia, pulmonary complications, and thrombocytopenia in liver transplantation. Lancet, 1989, 2(8656): 189-191.
41. Anesi JA, Blumberg EA, Abbo LM. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent surgical site infections in solid organ transplantation. Transplantation, 2018, 102(1): 21-34.
42. Aktas A, Kayaalp C, Gunes O, et al. Surgical site infection and risk factors following right lobe living donor liver transplantation in adults: A single-center prospective cohort study. Transpl Infect Dis, 2019, 21(6): e13176. doi: 10.1111/tid.13176.
43. He Q, Liu P, Li X, et al. Risk factors of bloodstream infections in recipients after liver transplantation: a meta-analysis. Infection, 2019, 47(1): 77-85.
44. Selimoğlu MA, Kaya S, Güngör Ş, et al. Infection risk after paediatric liver transplantation. Turk J Pediatr, 2020, 62(1): 46-52.
45. Bentata Y. Tacrolimus: 20 years of use in adult kidney transplantation. What we should know about its nephrotoxicity. Artif Organs, 2020, 44(2): 140-152.
46. Humar A, Morris M, Blumberg E, et al. Nucleic acid testing (NAT) of organ donors: is the ‘best’ test the right test? A consensus conference report. Am J Transplant, 2010, 10(4): 889-899.
47. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV transmitted from a living organ donor—New York City, 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2011, 60(10): 297-301.
48. Han D, Li Z, Li R, et al. mNGS in clinical microbiology laboratories: on the road to maturity. Crit Rev Microbiol, 2019, 45(5-6): 668-685.
49. Miao Q, Ma Y, Wang Q, et al. Microbiological diagnostic performance of metagenomic next-generation sequencing when applied to clinical practice. Clin Infect Dis, 2018, 67(suppl_2): S231-S240. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciy693.
50. Chiu CY, Miller SA. Clinical metagenomics. Nat Rev Genet, 2019, 20(6): 341-355.
51. 刘璀, 张春红, 陈凡, 等. 美国外科围术期预防用药临床指南—肝移植部分. 实用器官移植电子杂志, 2017, 5(1): 2-6.
52. Cruciani M, Mengoli C, Malena M, et al. Antifungal prophylaxis in liver transplant patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Liver Transpl, 2006, 12(5): 850-858.
53. Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis, 2014, 58(3): 309-318.
54. Danziger-Isakov L, Kumar D; AST ID Community of Practice. Vaccination of solid organ transplant candidates and recipients: Guidelines from the American society of transplantation infectious diseases community of practice. Clin Transplant, 2019, 33(9): e13563. doi: 10.1111/ctr.13563.
55. Stucchi RSB, Lopes MH, Kumar D, et al. Vaccine recommendations for solid-organ transplant recipients and donors. Transplantation, 2018, 102(2S Suppl 2): S72-S80. doi: 10.1097/tp.0000000000002012.
56. Duchini A, Hendry RM, Nyberg LM, et al. Immune response to influenza vaccine in adult liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl, 2001, 7(4): 311-313.
57. Vilchez RA, Fung JJ, Kusne S. Influenza A myocarditis developing in an adult liver transplant recipient despite vaccination: a case report and review of the literature. Transplantation, 2000, 70(3): 543-545.
58. Kumar D, Humar A, Plevneshi A, et al. Invasive pneumococcal disease in solid organ transplant recipients—10-year prospective population surveillance. Am J Transplant, 2007, 7(5): 1209-1214.
59. 中华预防医学会, 中华预防医学会疫苗与免疫分会. 肺炎球菌性疾病免疫预防专家共识(2020版). 中国疫苗和免疫, 2021, 27(1): 1-47.
60. Vento S, Garofano T, Renzini C, et al. Fulminant hepatitis associated with hepatitis A virus superinfection in patients with chronic hepatitis C. N Engl J Med, 1998, 338(5): 286-290.
61. Chen Z, Ma Y, Dong Y, et al. Utilization of hepatitis B surface antigen-positive donors in liver transplantation for recipients with hepatocellular carcinoma: a retrospective and propensity score matching analysis. PeerJ, 2023, 11: e15620. doi: 10.7717/peerj.15620.
62. Yong CC, Lin YH, Espinosa WZ, et al. Long-term outcomes of active vaccination against de novo hepatitis B among pediatric recipients of living donor liver transplantations with anti-HBc (+) grafts: a retrospective case-control study. Int J Surg, 2024, 110(10): 6702-6710.
63. Park JS, Gayam V, Pan CQ. Review article: preventing hepatitis B graft infection in hepatitis B patients after liver transplantation: immunoglobulin vs anti-virals. Aliment Pharmacol Ther, 2020, 52(6): 944-954.
64. Roque-Afonso AM, Feray C, Samuel D, et al. Antibodies to hepatitis B surface antigen prevent viral reactivation in recipients of liver grafts from anti-HBC positive donors. Gut, 2002, 50(1): 95-99.
65. Lin CC, Yong CC, Chen CL. Active vaccination to prevent de novo hepatitis B virus infection in liver transplantation. World J Gastroenterol, 2015, 21(39): 11112-11117.
66. Brewer EC, Hunter L. Acute liver failure due to disseminated varicella zosterinfection. Case Reports Hepatol, 2018, 2018: 1269340. doi: 10.1155/2018/1269340.

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